Chapter 3: Social Impact Terms
When you are done with this section, you will be able to...
Define, distinguish, and accurately apply key social impact terms in discussions, activities, and intervention planning.
More effectively communicate, collaborate, and conduct research regarding social impact topics.
Better participate in class discussions and understand future class content.
INTRODUCTION
Solving social problems is not simply about good intentions. It requires clear thinking and effective action, both of which begin with a shared language of key concepts and terms. Social impact terms help precisely define a problem, measure progress accurately, and collaborate effectively. Without shared terminology, efforts can become disorganized, and meaningful change can become harder to achieve.
This chapter introduces key terms that will be referenced throughout the course. There is no need to master them yet, but having a basic understanding will increase your ability to engage in discussions, activities, and projects with greater confidence. These terms provide the necessary language to better analyze challenges, design solutions, and drive real impact.
WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO KNOW AND UNDERSTAND SOCIAL IMPACT TERMS?
Clarity in defining problems, measuring progress, and communicating solutions can determine whether social change efforts succeed or fail. The use of key terms creates a shared language across sectors and disciplines, which ensures continuity and improves the likelihood of strategic, measurable, and impactful solutions.1 Without a mutual understanding of these terms, discussions become vague, plans lack focus, and well-intentioned initiatives may never lead to real change.
Imagine trying to build a house without agreeing on the definition of what a “foundation” or “framework” is. The building process would be chaotic, inconsistent, and ineffective. The same principle applies to social impact work. When people interpret terms like “impact” or “best practices” differently, confusion arises, leading to misaligned goals and ineffective interventions. A shared vocabulary eliminates this ambiguity and helps professionals design more strategic and sustainable solutions.
In addition to establishing a unified vocabulary, a strong grasp of key terms helps optimize the research process.2 Utilizing subject-appropriate language while researching leads to the discovery of more relevant and accurate information. This applies both in professional settings and everyday problem-solving.
Within this class, a shared understanding of key terms will enable deeper discussions, stronger collaboration with peers, and sharper critical thinking and decision-making. When everyone speaks the same language, ideas can be exchanged more clearly, leading to more meaningful conversations and impactful solutions.
Why is a clear understanding of social impact terms essential for effective collaboration and problem-solving? How can it improve real-world outcomes?
WHAT ARE KEY TERMS AND HOW DO YOU IDENTIFY THEM?
Identifying the key terms used by others to research and describe a social issue helps you better understand its context. Key terms are words or phrases that appear repeatedly and are central to defining the problem or explaining a theory of change.
For example, key terms in CHI’s Theory of Change include “helpline,” which refers to its emergency telephone services; “child protection systems,” which encompass the formal and informal systems that protect children—such as agencies, organizations, families, communities, laws, policies, and financial resources; and “data management,” which refers to CHI’s use of data on children’s needs to inform and improve policy decisions.
Not all SPSOs use the same words or definitions to discuss their social problems. For example, United Way’s 211 provides services similar to CHI’s helplines, but the terms “helpline” or “protection systems” are used rarely, if at all. Other organizations might use the same words (such as sustainability) with a different emphasis or imply a different meaning (such as environmental, social, or economic). Identifying, clarifying, and documenting the key terms related to a specific cause, social issue, or SPSO is one of the first steps in understanding a social problem and learning about the current best practices working to solve it.
WHAT ARE THE KEY TERMS I NEED TO KNOW FOR THIS CLASS?
Affinity
A natural liking, attraction, or connection between people or things based on shared interests, values, or qualities.
Backwards Mapping
Starting with the desired outcomes in mind and working backwards to identify plausible interventions that lead to those outcomes.
Behavioral Change
The process of modifying an individual’s actions, attitudes, and habits to improve the individual’s performance, productivity, and overall well-being for the long term.
Best Practices
Strategies, interventions, or approaches that have thoroughly demonstrated their ability to produce desirable outcomes.3 These evidence-based practices hold widespread acceptance among social impact practitioners, who recognize them as the current most effective approaches to address specific social problems.
Compassion
Compassion comes from the Latin roots com- (“with” or “together”) and passion (“to suffer”), literally meaning “to suffer together” or “co-suffering.”4 More than an emotion, compassion is a complex response that involves recognizing another’s suffering, being moved by it, and feeling a desire to alleviate it.5
Context
The broader framework, circumstances, and conditions that surround a particular social problem. It encompasses several factors including historical, cultural, economic, political, and environmental elements that interact and shape the problem.
Contributing Factors
The various elements that play a role in the sustained existence of a social problem. These factors, when occurring simultaneously, increase the likelihood or severity of consequences to a social issue.
Corporate Social Responsibility
The efforts of a business to align its unique purpose and values to economic, environmental, and social imperatives, while continuing to address the financial expectations of shareholders and stakeholders. This can sometimes lead to corporate-led social impact efforts.
Customer-Partners
Someone who is both a recipient of social impact efforts and a partner in the work to solve them. These are people experiencing the negative consequences of a specific social problem and are working with an SPSO to improve outcomes and co-create interventions.
Depth
An approach designed to grow or scale an intervention to address additional negative consequences. The aim is to expand on an existing, successful intervention to address other facets of the social problem within the same target population.
Due Diligence
A detailed investigation of an organization and/or practice before an investment of funds, resources, or support. Includes verifying financial, legal, and impact details.
Ecosystem Map
A strategic tool used to visualize the complex network of stakeholders, relationships, and interactions that shape a social issue.6
Evaluation
The ongoing process of monitoring, observing, and reporting data and programs. Evaluation is the periodic process of examining how well an intervention has done in achieving the desired impact.7
Funding and Legal Structures
Organizational frameworks that define how an entity is established, governed, and how it operates within the law; also determining many aspects of an organization, including how it is funded, its tax obligations, and its legal liabilities.8
Growth Mindset
The belief that abilities, intelligence, and skills can be developed over time through effort, learning, feedback, and persistence. A growth mindset encourages adaptability, continuous improvement, and learning from challenges and failure.
Human-Centered Design
A problem-solving approach used to create products or services that prioritize the needs, experiences, and perspectives of customer-partners.
Hybrid Organization
An organization that blends elements, values, and operational logics from different sectors and structures to achieve or support a common mission. Rather than being defined by a specific legal structure, hybridity often represents an organizational model that integrates social, environmental, or public interest goals with commercial revenue generation to ensure long-term sustainability.9
Impact
The portion of measured outcomes caused by a specific intervention.10 For example: A 5% decline in poverty was observed in a community served by multiple programs, but only 2% of that reduction can be attributed to a specific organization’s activities (the organization’s impact).
Impact Investing
A form of investing that aims to generate positive social or environmental impact alongside financial returns. Unlike traditional investment approaches that primarily focus on maximizing profits, impact investing seeks to address various social and environmental challenges while still achieving a competitive rate of return on investment.11
Implementation
The process by which an intervention is enacted and made tangible. Implementation involves carrying out planned activities, deploying resources, coordinating stakeholders, and executing strategies to achieve specific objectives.
Intervention
A deliberate action designed to address a social problem and create meaningful change. An intervention is the how of social impact work: the specific solution developed from intimately understanding a problem and the people affected. Interventions typically take the form of products, programs, or policies implemented by an SPSO.
Issue Map
A visual tool used to understand and communicate the structure and flow of a social problem. An issue map typically lays out contributing factors on the left, the scoped issue at the center, and negative consequences on the right. These illustrate causal relationships and help identify leverage points where interventions can address root causes rather than symptoms.
Issue Triangle
An issue triangle includes three components: (1) the specific issue (what), (2) the population (who), and (3) the geography (where). Practitioners use issue triangles to appropriately gauge and address social problems. Without all three components, a social issue remains too vague for effective intervention.
Logic Model
A visual representation that outlines the relationships between available resources, planned action, and expected results.12 A logic model centers on a goal or problem and is created to document inputs, as well as how those inputs connect to future activities, what outputs can be measured, what outcomes are expected to result from those activities, and how these factors contribute to overall impact. 
Monolithic Thinking
A mindset that treats a complicated issue as a single, indivisible problem with a one-size-fits-all solution.
Negative Consequences
The adverse conditions that affect an individual, family, or community because of a social problem.
Organizational Learning
The intentional practice of enhancing organizational performance through the collection, evaluation, and distribution of valuable knowledge and insights. It encompasses the collective learning of individuals, teams, and the entire organization, playing a crucial role in sustaining long-term success and fostering growth.13
Outcomes
The measured changes in the negative consequences of a social problem. For example: A 5% reduction in infant mortality occurred after the organization’s first decade of operation.
Outcome Goal
The desired measured change that an organization seeks in relation to specific aspects of its chosen social issue. This goal is often identified in their theory of change.
Outputs
The measure of direct activities, products, and services an organization delivers. Outputs are typically quantitative and easy to measure. For example: An organization works in Africa, employs 55 people, and serves a population of 5,000.
Peer-Reviewed Sources
Research articles that are evaluated by experts in a particular field before publication.
Prototype
A limited, lower-stakes representation of an intervention used to test ideas in a tangible way. Prototypes are faster and cheaper to implement than the final solution and allow stakeholders to experience, evaluate, and refine the design through feedback before full-scale development.
Proximity
Nearness in space, time, relationships, and/or experience.
Primary Research
Any type of data and insights that an individual collects directly from a population. Examples include surveys, interviews, observations, and ethnographic research.
Replication
A scaling strategy focused on reproducing a proven intervention in new locations or populations. Replication involves transferring a successful model to new contexts while adapting to local conditions and preserving the core elements that drive impact.14
Reach
A scaling approach that focuses on expanding an intervention to serve a larger number of people within the same community, population, or geographic area where it’s already proven successful.
Scale
The size of the area/population receiving an intervention. There are three levels of scale in the Social Impact Cycle: the individual level, the community level, and the world level.
Scope
The process of narrowing and defining a social problem to make the focused subject matter specific, relevant, and manageable. The issue triangle is one tactic for scoping an issue. It includes identifying a specific issue, the population affected, and the geographic area.
Secondary Research
The summary, collation, and/or synthesis of existing research.15
Social Impact Cycle
A framework for solving social problems that, if followed, guides social impact practitioners to create, improve, and measure effective and sustainable change.16
Social Issue
A condition that adversely affects individuals, communities, or societies. It is widely recognized by the public as a problem that requires collective attention and action to address and resolve.
Social Impact
Significant, positive social change that addresses a pressing social challenge and improves the well-being of individuals or communities. Social impact efforts strive for sustained impact and longevity.
Social Problem-Solving Organization (SPSO)
A formally established group or entity with an objective to improve human quality of life and well-being. These organizations can be found in public, private, nonprofit, and civil society sectors.
Theory of Change
A logical framework that explains how an intervention is expected to create change, showing the causal pathway connecting activities, intermediate outcomes, and ultimate impact. A theory of change makes explicit the “if-then” causal relationship: If we provide job training, then participants will gain skills, which will lead to employment, ultimately reducing poverty in our community.17
Vetting
The systematic process of carefully reviewing and evaluating SPSOs using a specific set of criteria. Vetting involves examining an organization’s mission, financials, and program effectiveness to assess credibility, impact, and alignment with stated goals.
Which terms are new to you? Which ones are the most interesting?
WHICH TERMS ARE ESSENTIAL TO UNDERSTAND FROM THE START?
Each of the referenced key terms is valuable and will be explored further throughout this text. However, as you move through the Guidebook, some terms will appear more frequently than others. The following section is intended to clarify and expand upon foundational key terms that are particularly important as you begin engaging in conversations about social impact work.
Social Issue:
Social issues are challenges existing in the world that affect specific populations or communities. They vary in scope, complexity, and negative impact. Some can be understood and addressed using well-established methods, especially when their root causes are clear and stable over time. Others are harder to define and confront.
An important distinction to note is that while all social issues are problems, not all problems qualify as social issues. A problem is defined as “a situation, person, or thing that needs attention and needs to be dealt with or solved.”18 Under this definition, problems can range from temporary inconveniences—such as stubbing a toe, a child briefly losing their parents at a store, or a relative who sparks political debate at family gatherings. While these situations may require attention, they are typically temporary, individual in scope, or both.
Social issues, by contrast, are problems with deeper and broader impact. They affect multiple individuals and often entire groups within society. Unlike simple problems that may resolve on their own with time, social issues persist if there are no actionable plans to solve them. They require deliberate planning and collaborative action to address them. Some examples of problems that are correctly classified as social issues include political division, financial illiteracy, childhood malnutrition, homelessness, substance abuse, domestic violence, home foreclosure, discrimination, and child labor.
Contributing Factors:
Contributing factors are conditions or influences that lead to the existence of a social issue, worsen its effects, or facilitate its continuation. In other words, they cause, exacerbate, and perpetuate social issues. In theory, if all contributing factors were removed or solved, the associated social issue would cease to exist. However, if contributing factors remain, the issue will persist. These factors can be compared to the roots of a weed: if the above-ground portion of the weed is cut off, but the roots remain intact, then the weed will eventually grow back.
A contributing factor feeds into the issue, but it is not the same as the issue itself. Simply restating or reframing the issue does not constitute a contributing factor. For example, if the issue is alcohol and substance abuse among youth, adolescent alcohol consumption would only qualify as a restatement of the problem, not a contributing factor. Appropriate contributing factors might include peer pressure, ease of access to alcohol, inadequate government regulation, or insufficient early education about substance abuse.
Negative Consequences:
Similar to contributing factors, negative consequences are distinct from social issues themselves. However, unlike contributing factors, negative consequences cannot exist independently. They arise from the social issue. Negative consequences are the undesirable outcomes that result from the existence of a social issue. Continuing the weed analogy, if the social issue is the weed, negative consequences can be understood as the thorns or leaves that grow from it. In theory, if the social issue were fully addressed and eliminated, the negative consequences associated with it would also cease to exist—that is, assuming there is only one social issue leading to that consequence. However, as long as the underlying issue remains, these consequences will persist.
Returning to the previous example, listing “increased drug use” as a negative consequence would simply be a reframing of the issue. The actual negative consequences that stem from alcohol and substance abuse among youth might include incarceration, violent behavior, or high school dropout rates.
Social Problem-Solving Organization (SPSO):
Social Problem-Solving Organization (SPSO) is a term employed by the Ballard Center for Social Impact at BYU specifically for educational purposes. While the term is used throughout this Guidebook for clarity and consistency, it is not widely recognized or used in the broader social impact field. Therefore, the use of this term in outside discussions, internships, or professional settings will require an explanation of its definition. The terms "nonprofit," "social enterprise," "NGO," or "impact organization” are more commonly used in public social impact discussions.
For the purposes of this Guidebook, the SPSO classification helps emphasize purpose over structure. It reinforces a critical principle: what matters most is not how an organization is classified legally or what sector it belongs to. Rather, the focus is centered on whether its work meaningfully contributes to solving social problems and improving lives. This inclusive framework can help you understand that effective social impact work can happen within many organizational forms. Your legal structure should be chosen in accordance with your mission, strategy, and funding needs rather than assumptions about which type of organization is "better" at creating change.
Outputs:
When evaluating a social intervention, outputs represent the most immediate and observable level of measurement. Outputs are the direct products, services, or activities generated by an intervention. They describe what was delivered or what actions were taken as part of the work. Outputs are typically quantitative and focus on volume or completion rather than change.
By being explicitly measurable, outputs help determine whether an intervention is being carried out as planned and whether resources are being used as intended. However, outputs do not indicate whether a social issue is improving or whether people’s lives are changing. They measure activity, not effectiveness, or change. For example, in a literacy program, outputs might include the number of classes held, books distributed, or participants enrolled. While these outputs demonstrate effort and capacity, they do not show whether literacy levels actually improved.
Outcomes:
Outcomes measure the changes in a social issue after the implementation of an intervention. Unlike outputs, which focus on what an organization does, outcomes represent the changes that have been observed in the social issue. It’s important to note that not all outcomes are good; there are negative outcomes as well. When an intervention is implemented, it’s critical to identify all relevant outcomes to determine what positive and negative changes have occurred.
Outcomes can be short-term or long-term. Short-term outcomes often appear during or shortly after an intervention and may include increased knowledge, improved skills, or changes in behavior. Conversely, long-term outcomes are broader, more sustained changes that persist over time and often represent deeper progress toward solving a social issue. For example, in a job training program, a short-term outcome might be participants gaining employable skills, while long-term outcomes could be sustained employment or increased income over several years. Outcomes demonstrate progress, but they may still be influenced by factors beyond the intervention itself.
Impact:
Impact refers to the portion of observed outcomes that can be directly attributed to an intervention. It answers the questions: What change occurred because of this intervention? And what would things look like without this intervention? While outcomes show that change occurred, impact isolates the intervention’s unique contribution to that change.
This distinction is critical because outcomes can result from many external influences, such as economic conditions, policy changes, or individual circumstances. Measuring impact requires comparing what happened with the intervention to what would have happened without it, often through comparison groups or other evaluation methods. For example, if participants in a job training program gain employment, that outcome alone does not demonstrate impact. Impact is shown when evidence indicates that participants were more likely to gain employment because of the program than they would have been otherwise.
Impact measurement provides the strongest evidence of effectiveness and is essential for accountability, learning, and demonstrating value to stakeholders.
Best Practices:
A best practice is defined as “a procedure that has been shown by research and experience to produce optimal results and that is established or proposed as a standard suitable for widespread adoption.”19 In the context of social impact, best practices are validated, evidence-based methods, strategies, and approaches that maximize positive social change while minimizing unintended harm. They are recognized as reliable standards that can be widely adopted because of their demonstrated success in achieving desired goals across various accounts.
Not every successful intervention rises to the level of a best practice. An approach that proves effective in one context does not necessarily yield comparable outcomes across different settings or cultural environments. Unless the reason for the initial success is identified, it is unclear which factors led to that success, and whether it came by the merits of the intervention alone.
A true best practice is an intervention that has been tested repeatedly in different contexts or populations, analyzed thoroughly to understand the mechanisms behind its success, and refined over time as new data and experiences provide further insights. As more evidence is collected through ongoing testing and evaluation, an intervention gains credibility and may be formally recognized as a best practice. This process ensures best practices aren’t based on isolated success stories, but on reliable, replicable results that can guide effective social impact work.
What key terms from today’s reading do you find confusing? Which terms would you like to understand better?
SUMMARY
Clear language drives clear thinking. This chapter introduced foundational terms that are used throughout the Guidebook to better define problems, plan interventions, measure results, and communicate effectively. With a shared vocabulary, collaboration becomes smoother, ideas flow more clearly, and social change becomes more strategic and sustainable. While there is no need to master every term yet, understanding them will improve your ability to ask better questions, contribute meaningfully in social impact spaces, and solve social issues more effectively. As you move forward, work to deepen your understanding of these terms and their definitions.
ENDNOTES
1 - Kania, J., & Kramer, M. (2011). "Collective Impact." Stanford Social Innovation Review, 9(6), 36-41.
2 - Creswell, J. W. (2018). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches.
3 - Spencer, Lorine M., Michael W. Schooley, Lynda A. Anderson, Chris S. Kochtitzky, Amy S. DeGroff, Heather M. Devlin, and Shawna L. Mercer. 2013. "Seeking Best Practices: A Conceptual Framework for Planning and Improving Evidence-Based Practices." Preventing Chronic Disease 10 (December). https://doi.org/10.5888/pcd10.130186.
4 - Gilbert, P. (2017). Compassion: Concepts, Research and Applications. Routledge. (Origins and meaning).
5 - McEwan, Kirsten, and Lina Minou. 2022. “Defining Compassion: A Delphi Study of Compassion Therapists’ Experiences When Introducing Patients to the Term ‘Compassion.’” Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, August. https://doi.org/10.1111/papt.12423: “Compassion: The Essential Orientation.” n.d. BPS. https://www.bps.org.uk/psychologist/compassion-essential-orientation.
6 - Visible Network Labs. “Ecosystem Mapping 101 Infographic: System Change for Social Impact.” (2023).
7 - Archibald, James. 2023. “Tips for Successful Online Learning.” Uj.ac.za, August. https://doi. org/106175724/1686131230177: CDC. 2024. “CDC Approach to Program Evaluation.” CDC Approach to Program Evaluation. August 18, 2024. https://www.cdc.gov/evaluation/php/about/index.html.
8 - U.S. Small Business Administration (SBA). Choose a business structure. (2023).
9 - Pilon, Marc, and Alisher Mansurov. 2024. “Hybrid Organizations: A Classification within Economic Sectors.” Humanities and Social Sciences Communications 11 (1): 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024- 02762-7: Haigh, Nardia. 2015. “Understanding Hybrid Organizations | California Management Review.” Berkeley.edu. June 15, 2015. https://cmr.berkeley.edu/2015/06/hybrid-organizations/.
10 - Ebrahim, A., & Rangan, V. K. (2014). “What Impact? A Framework for Measuring the Scale and Scope of Social Performance.” California Management Review, 56(3), 118–141.
11 - Bugg-Levine, A., & Emerson, J. (2011). Impact Investing: Transforming How We Make Money While Making a Difference.
12 - W.K. Kellogg Foundation. (2004). Logic model development guide. Battle Creek, MI: W.K. Kellogg Foundation.
13 - Senge, P. M. (1990). The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization: Dixon, Nancy M. The Organizational Learning Cycle: How We Can Learn Collectively. Gower Publishing, 1999.
14 - Dees, J., Anderson, B., & Wei-Skillern, J. (2004). "Scaling Social Impact." Stanford Social Innovation Review, 1 (4), 24-32.
15 - Illinois Institute of Technology Library. (n.d.). "Secondary Research." Illinois Tech Library Guides.
16 - Ballard Center for Social Impact. (n.d.). The Social Impact Cycle. Brigham Young University.
17 - U.S. Department of Education, A Theory of Change, accessed April 14, 2026, https://www.ed.gov/ media/document/05atheoryofchangepdf-2786.pdf.
18 - Cambridge University Press. (n.d.). “Problem.” Cambridge Dictionary Thesaurus.
19 - Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). “Best practice.” Merriam-Webster Dictionary.
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