Do Good. Better. Guidebook Chapter 9: Secondary Research

When you are done with this section, you’ll be able to...

1. Define what secondary research is, how it differs from primary research, and what it includes. 

2. Explain why secondary research matters and when to apply it. 

3. Understand how secondary research enables you to gain a better understanding of social issues.

    

4. Know how to conduct secondary research and evaluate its credibility. 

INTRODUCTION

Secondary research involves utilizing existing information to gain a deeper understanding of a problem before designing a solution. This chapter explains how secondary research is defined, conducted, and implemented within social impact work by outlining research methods and introducing the role of context. The process of conducting secondary research is pivotal in establishing subject matter, navigating the various aspects of an issue, and learning to love the problem.

Before continuing: Visit the Ballard Brief website and review one of the student-written research articles in their library. These briefs are strong examples of how secondary research can deepen your understanding of a complex issue. While reading, take note of the sections included and the types of content covered.

WHAT IS SECONDARY RESEARCH?

Secondary research is the process of analyzing information that others have already collected and published, otherwise known as secondary data.¹ Secondary data can be both quantitative (numeric and measurable) and qualitative (descriptive and abstract), including items like surveys, polls, public records, reports, academic studies and reviews, and other collected research. An individual conducting thorough secondary research pulls information from as many applicable data sources as possible. Secondary research is most effective when there is already a substantial amount of published and relevant research available regarding your topic, and time and budget constraints limit your primary data collection.² The goal of secondary research is to synthesize existing information from various sources to clearly establish what is known on a certain topic and where gaps in the knowledge exist.

Real World Example: Dr. Julie Valentine’s work on the connection between mental illness and sexual assault is a great example of how secondary research functions in a real-world context. In her study, Mental Illness as a Vulnerability for Sexual Assault: A Retrospective Study of 7,455 Sexual Assault Forensic Medical Examinations, Valentine and her co-authors conducted a retrospective chart review of 7,455 sexual assault medical forensic examinations from 2010 to 2020. The research team collected the information documented by sexual assault nurse examiners, coded it into a shared dataset, and examined the demographic details, self-reported mental illness, medication use, assault characteristics, and injury documentation of those affected. To strengthen the study, the team also reviewed crime-lab information and de-identified data. By gathering these existing resources together, the authors were able to identify patterns that proved mental illness was associated with greater vulnerability to sexual assault, as well as more violent assault characteristics.³

Secondary vs Primary Research

To better understand the role of secondary research, it’s helpful to distinguish between secondary and primary approaches. Secondary research and primary research are complementary, not competing methodologies. Identifying the difference between them is essential for knowing when each is appropriate to use and how they might work together when applicable.

Primary research involves the direct, first-hand collection of new data. Meaning, you, or your team, are personally conducting and documenting survey responses, interviews, focus groups, field observations, and controlled experiments—all of which generate original data that did not previously exist. Primary research can be tailored to specific research questions that give practitioners direct insight into the population they are studying. However, it is time-intensive, resource-demanding, and requires careful ethical planning, particularly when working with vulnerable populations.

Secondary research, by contrast, works entirely with data and findings that others have already produced. Rather than going out to collect new information, the researchers synthesize, analyze, and draw meaning from existing sources. This makes secondary research significantly faster and more cost-effective than primary research, though it is worth noting that accessing certain databases, proprietary datasets, or specialized industry reports can still carry real costs. Additionally, since secondary data was collected for a different purpose and audience, it may not perfectly fit a practitioner's specific question—a limitation that primary research does not share.

In practice, the two methods are most powerful when used together. Secondary research typically comes first: it establishes the knowledge base, narrows the focus, and identifies where new data is needed. Primary research then fills the gaps that secondary sources cannot address.

For many social impact projects, secondary research alone is sufficient to inform a theory of change, scope a problem, and justify an intervention, but primary research becomes essential when the existing literature is sparse, when local context differs significantly from published findings, or when new, original evidence is required for credibility with funders or stakeholders.

WHAT ARE THE MAIN TYPES OF SECONDARY RESEARCH?

Secondary research takes many forms, and choosing the right type depends on your question, your context, and the kind of evidence you need. The following methods are among the most commonly used in social impact work:

Literature Review: A literature review is the most common form of secondary research in academic and applied settings. It is a comprehensive analysis of existing scholarly content on a given subject. This involves gathering, studying, and synthesizing applicable published research to establish a knowledge base and identify research gaps.

Statistical and Database Research: This type of secondary research involves examining existing quantitative datasets that were collected for other purposes, often by governments, international organizations, or research institutions. Examples include census data, administrative records, economic indicators, and public health surveillance data. Statistical secondary research is powerful because it provides access to large, representative samples that would be expensive to collect independently.

Case Study Research: A case study is an in-depth examination of a specific organization, program, community, or event. Secondary case study research draws on existing documentation—such as program evaluations, organizational reports, and journalistic accounts—rather than conducting new, firsthand investigations. This approach is particularly powerful in social impact work, where learning from real-world precedent—understanding not just what worked or failed, but why—can meaningfully inform future interventions.

Secondary case studies are valuable because they capture the kind of complex, context-rich detail that surveys or statistics often miss. However, they come with limitations. The quality and completeness of existing documentation varies widely, and because each case reflects a specific context, findings may not transfer directly to a different population, setting, or problem.

WHY DOES SECONDARY RESEARCH MATTER?

Before you can design a solution, propose a program, or seek to advocate a new policy, you must have a robust understanding of the issue. Secondary research allows practitioners and organizations to build on existing knowledge rather than starting from zero—saving time, reducing cost, and grounding decisions in evidence rather than assumption.

In social impact work specifically, secondary research serves several critical functions.

• Learning from past successes and failures: It reveals what has already been tried. By reviewing existing studies, evaluations, and reports, practitioners can identify which approaches have worked, which have failed, and under what conditions. This protects against repeating well-documented mistakes and enables programs to move forward with realistic expectations. 
• Identifying research gaps: Secondary research draws attention to areas where evidence is sparse, results are unclear, or questions remain unresolved. These gaps often point directly to where primary research or innovative programming is most needed. 
• Strengthening your theory of change: A theory of change (which will be thoroughly discussed in a future chapter) is a strategic framework used to map out how an intervention or set of actions will lead to a desired future state. This framework relies on the evidence found through secondary research to justify why it thinks certain actions will lead to certain outcomes. 

Understanding past successes and failures, identifying research gaps, and strengthening your theory of change are not isolated tasks. They work together to reduce the risk of unintended harm and increase the likelihood of meaningful impact. It is also important to recognize that secondary research is not simply a preliminary step to be completed before the "real work" begins. Effective practitioners return to it continuously as programs evolve, new studies are published, and the broader context of an issue shifts. In social impact work, staying grounded in existing evidence is not a one-time exercise but an ongoing discipline.

HOW DOES SECONDARY RESEARCH HELP YOU UNDERSTAND THE CONTEXT OF THE ISSUE?

One of the most important outcomes of secondary research is a deeper understanding of the context surrounding an issue—the historical, cultural, economic, political, and environmental factors that interact to shape a social problem. Without this understanding, even well-intentioned interventions risk being ineffective or harmful.

To begin mapping an issue's context, secondary research should address foundational questions such as:

• Who is affected? What is important to know about these populations? What makes their situation unique? 
• What is the issue at hand? How is it defined and by whom? 
• When did this issue begin? How has it developed or changed over time? 
• Where is the issue occurring? How does it compare to other communities with similar problems? 

Working through these questions builds the kind of contextual foundation that allows practitioners to clearly define the problem, identify its contributing factors and negative consequences, and design responses that align with the lived realities of those affected.

Context in Practice: Child Helpline International

One powerful example of the importance of context is Jeroo Billimoria’s work founding Childline India, an emergency telephone service for unhoused children in India.⁴ These children frequently navigated emergencies like injury and illness, with no way to access aid. In India‘s society at the time, children living on the street were often viewed with suspicion and distrust, and police frequently saw them as criminals rather than vulnerable youth. This created a deeply-rooted fear of law enforcement among the children, who avoided police even in emergencies. Pay phones were common, and could be used in an emergency, but the children didn’t have the money to pay for them. Billimoria's awareness of both barriers directly shaped her response: a free helpline (Childline) and an "uncle police" program designed to rebuild trust between children and local police, so they could better access Childline.

Without that contextual understanding, her intervention would have struggled to reach the people it was designed to serve. Childline India has since grown into Child Helpline International, now active in over 180 countries, and a testament to what becomes possible when solutions are built to address real-life barriers.

The Danger of Ignoring Context

Moving forward with a solution without first understanding the context of a problem can lead to serious harm. Just as a doctor wouldn’t operate on a patient without first knowing their symptoms, medical history, and overall condition, an SPSO shouldn’t seek to solve a social issue before understanding its own underlying history.

The Bangladesh arsenic well disaster serves as a powerful illustration of how well-intentioned efforts can worsen an issue if context is ignored.⁵ In the 1970s and 1980s, millions of shallow tube wells were installed across Bangladesh to provide safe drinking water and combat deadly waterborne diseases, a logical, well-intentioned intervention. However, the geological context specific to the region was not appropriately examined, and the soil was not properly tested. As a result, the wells exposed more than 50 million people to toxic levels of arsenic, triggering widespread illness, death, and social disruption. The very effort designed to save lives created a new public health crisis.

This is precisely the danger of skipping contextual research. The problem was not a lack of resources or good intentions. It was a failure to ask the right questions before acting. What are the environmental conditions of this specific place? What factors might interact with this intervention in unexpected ways? Secondary research, done thoroughly, is what surfaces those questions before they become tragedies. Context is not merely helpful; it is essential for defining problems accurately, anticipating unintended consequences, and designing interventions that truly help rather than harm.

What is a time you acted without context? What challenges did that create?

HOW DO YOU CONDUCT SECONDARY RESEARCH?

Once you understand why secondary research is valuable and how it helps build context, the next step is learning how to engage in it effectively. Secondary research is an iterative and flexible process that can be adapted and implemented based on specific research needs. However, there are best practices that, if followed, can strengthen your research.

Qualtrics, an experience management company based in the United States, outlines five key steps to conducting secondary research effectively and efficiently.⁶

Step 1: Define your research topic or question.

To ensure that your research efforts are cohesive and relevant, you need to be clear about what you are trying to learn, solve, or understand. A vague starting question leads to unfocused searching, wasted time, and inconclusive findings.

Step 2: Find existing data sources.

This step prioritizes gathering sources for further study. Draw from a wide range of source types, each with distinct strengths and limitations, to compile a personal library of research centered around your topic.

Step 3: Begin studying and sorting existing data.

As you study your gathered sources, document the quality and application potential of each source. This step requires both strategic thinking and disciplined record-keeping. Filter out unnecessary or irrelevant data and begin building your evidence base.

Step 4: Combine the data and compare the results.

Collecting data is only part of the work. The real intellectual effort of secondary research begins when you start synthesizing across sources, identifying patterns, reconciling contradictions, and building a coherent picture of what the existing evidence says about your question or research topic.

Step 5: Analyze your data and explore further.

Analysis transforms your research from a collection of facts into valuable insights. This requires interpreting what the combined evidence has proven or disproven. Which of your assumptions were incorrect? How does the collected research change your perspective on the issue? Strive to gain a clear understanding of the verified claims regarding your topic, as well as its existing research gaps.vii

You will cycle back through some of these steps as your topic is refined and your research exposes valuable new subtopics to explore. Continue compiling research until you feel thoroughly grounded in the various aspects of your topic.

Handling Conflicting Evidence

It’s common to find sources that contradict one another. Rather than dismissing conflicting evidence, treat it as informative. Ask yourself:

• Do the studies use different methodologies or definitions that could explain different findings?  
• Were they conducted in different geographic, cultural, or temporal contexts?  
• Are the conflicting sources of different quality or rigor? Is one peer-reviewed while another is an industry report?  
• Does the conflict reveal a genuine area of scholarly debate that your report should acknowledge?  

Acknowledging conflicting evidence in your research can strengthen your credibility. It suggests you have engaged deeply with the literature rather than specifically selecting sources that confirm a predetermined conclusion.

HOW DO YOU KNOW WHAT SECONDARY RESEARCH SOURCES TO TRUST?

Conducting secondary research requires careful evaluation of the quality and credibility of found sources. Not all sources are reliable, which is why it’s essential to develop the skills to assess source validity. The recommendations listed below offer simple reference points to help you find the best sources available.

• Using Credible Sources: Prioritize peer-reviewed articles and studies published in reputable journals. Peer-reviewed research undergoes rigorous evaluation by experts in the field, ensuring that the methods and findings are reliable. 
• Leveraging Academic and Public Resources: Utilize search engines like Google Scholar and AI-driven tools such as Elicit to find relevant studies. Additionally, draw on university and public library databases, which often provide free access to a wealth of academic resources. 
• Assessing Source Validity: Always critically evaluate the sources encountered. Consider whether the source is peer-reviewed, the credibility of the journal or publisher, and the extent to which the findings have been corroborated by other studies. This vigilance helps ensure that the information used is accurate and trustworthy. 
• Avoiding Cognitive Biases: Be mindful of the “sleeper effect,” a phenomenon where persuasive information from unreliable sources influences beliefs over time, even if it was initially clear the source was untrustworthy. To avoid this, always cite sources and prioritize information from the most credible sources available. 

SUMMARY

Secondary research is a critical piece in loving the problem because loving the problem is rooted in understanding it. The process of collecting, studying, and analyzing existing research enables you to develop a nuanced understanding of the issue and its context. This research process then informs how an intervention is designed, implemented, and how it should be evaluated. Combined with available primary research, this foundation becomes the bedrock for innovative solutions and, when done correctly, sets the stage for successful, long-term social impact.

ENDNOTES

1 - Illinois Institute of Technology Library. (n.d.). “Secondary Research.” Illinois Tech Library Guides.
2 - Illinois Institute of Technology Library. (n.d.). “Secondary Research.” Illinois Tech Library Guides.
3 - Miles, L., Valentine, J. L., Mabey, L., & Downing, N. R. (2022). Mental Illness as a Vulnerability for Sexual Assault: A Retrospective Study of 7,455 Sexual Assault Forensic Medical Examinations. Journal of forensic nursing, 18(3), 131–138. https://doi.org/10.1097/ JFN.0000000000000361
4 - Billimoria, J. (2013). “Building Childline: Lessons in Scaling a Social Innovation.” Stanford Social Innovation Review.
5 - Smith, A. H., Lingas, E. O., & Rahman, M. (2000). “Contamination of Drinking-Water by Arsenic in Bangladesh: A Public Health Emergency.” Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 78, 1093–1103.
6 - Qualtrics. (n.d.). “Secondary Research: Definition, Methods, and Examples.” Qualtrics.